First Aid First aid is a series of simple, life-saving medical techniques that a non-doctor can be trained to perform in medical emergency situations, before the intervention of emergency medical technicians or doctors.
It is best to obtain training in first aid before a medical emergency occurs. Supplies useful in giving first aid are often kept together in a first aid kit.Emergency action principles The guiding rules to be employed by the first person, or persons, on the scene of an emergency.
The nature of emergencies is such that it is impossible to prescribe a specific list of actions to be completed before the event happens, so principles form a framework on which to base forward actions.The adherence to the principles by would be rescuers varies widely based on the training the people involved in emergency have received, the support available from emergency services (and the time it will take to arrive) and the emergency itself.
There are many overlaps between emergency action principles and principles of first aid, firefighting and other emergency service activities.Improvised uses.Many first-aid items can have improvised uses in a survival situation.
For example:
alcohol pads and petroleum jelly-based ointments can be used as a fire-starting aid in an emergency, and the latter can even be used as an improvised lubricant for certain mechanical devices, and adhesive tapes and bandages can be used for repairs.
These alternate uses can be an important consideration when picking items for a kit that may be used in wilderness or survival situations.
Tuesday, May 12, 2009
Height and Weight
Most Favorable Weight
1.) Tall men, over 5ft. 10 in., are less likely than the average man to reach the age of 35. They seem to be fredisposed paticularly to tuberculosis. If you are young and tall it is advisable to give heed to the instructions under the heading tuberculosis. After the age of 35, tall men have better prospects of living to a ripe old age, provided they do noot permit their weight to increase above the standard figures.
2.) Men of medium height, 5 ft. 7 in., to 5 ft. 10 in., or of small stature 5 ft. 0 in., to 5 ft. 6 in., have good prospects of living to age 35, provided they keep their weight slightly above the standard figures. Past the age of 35, the death rate among short men is heavy if their weight is in excess of the standard.
3.) In a general way, for all heights before the age of 35 it is best to keep the weight slightly above the standard and to guard against tuberculosis. After the age of 35 overweight must be avoided, especially with advancing years.
4.) After the age of 50, the thinner an individual is, the better is his chance of growing old, provided he does not have a tendency to develop tuberculosis or has not suffered from tuberculosis in ealier years., and provided too, his lightweight is not due to some organic disease.
Overweight
You have no doubt been repeatedly told that persons who weight too much past the age of 35, have poor have poor prospects of attaining old age.. their particular enemy is heart disease. Statistic have abundantly demonstrated the truth of this statement. This does not mean that a very fat person cannot live to age 90 or even 100, but this chances of doing so are small.
Overweight is usually due to over-eating, although stout persons nearly always insist that they are very spare eaters; but they measure the amount of food that they eat by their appetites, and the appetite is a very flexible measuring rod, capable of being enormously stretched by hungry persons.If you are considerably overweight, consult your doctor for methods of reduction but if you are only moderately so, or even just pleasingly plump the best plan is to eat whatever you have been eating, but cut the amount in half and go easy with fatty foods and starchy and sweet articles of diet.
It is not easy to reduce weight. It taken will power. don't try to lose more than about two or three pounds a month, but keep at it for a year or more, until you get back to normal.Do not use drugs to reduce your weight Some drugs used to reduce weight are dangerous, and in some cases prove fatal.The general tendency is for a person to be thin and young and to grow stout with age. Furthermore, it is sometimes very difficult for a young lightweight to increase his or her weight through diet, etc. But thin young people need fear only tuberculosis; the dangers from consumption are not great provided the precautions regarding the tuberculosis are observed.
With very few exceptions, any person who is too heavy can reduce if he will make an effort to do so. The effort is worth while. At the age of 50, for instance, every pound weight in excess of the standard figures given in the table (standard weight and height) increases a man's likelihood of dying during the ensuing year, by about 1% . in other words, if a man 50 yrs. old weighs 50 lbs. in excess of the standard figures, the likelihood of his dying is constantly 50% greater than that of a man 50 yrs.old who is of normal weight.
1.) Tall men, over 5ft. 10 in., are less likely than the average man to reach the age of 35. They seem to be fredisposed paticularly to tuberculosis. If you are young and tall it is advisable to give heed to the instructions under the heading tuberculosis. After the age of 35, tall men have better prospects of living to a ripe old age, provided they do noot permit their weight to increase above the standard figures.
2.) Men of medium height, 5 ft. 7 in., to 5 ft. 10 in., or of small stature 5 ft. 0 in., to 5 ft. 6 in., have good prospects of living to age 35, provided they keep their weight slightly above the standard figures. Past the age of 35, the death rate among short men is heavy if their weight is in excess of the standard.
3.) In a general way, for all heights before the age of 35 it is best to keep the weight slightly above the standard and to guard against tuberculosis. After the age of 35 overweight must be avoided, especially with advancing years.
4.) After the age of 50, the thinner an individual is, the better is his chance of growing old, provided he does not have a tendency to develop tuberculosis or has not suffered from tuberculosis in ealier years., and provided too, his lightweight is not due to some organic disease.
Overweight
You have no doubt been repeatedly told that persons who weight too much past the age of 35, have poor have poor prospects of attaining old age.. their particular enemy is heart disease. Statistic have abundantly demonstrated the truth of this statement. This does not mean that a very fat person cannot live to age 90 or even 100, but this chances of doing so are small.
Overweight is usually due to over-eating, although stout persons nearly always insist that they are very spare eaters; but they measure the amount of food that they eat by their appetites, and the appetite is a very flexible measuring rod, capable of being enormously stretched by hungry persons.If you are considerably overweight, consult your doctor for methods of reduction but if you are only moderately so, or even just pleasingly plump the best plan is to eat whatever you have been eating, but cut the amount in half and go easy with fatty foods and starchy and sweet articles of diet.
It is not easy to reduce weight. It taken will power. don't try to lose more than about two or three pounds a month, but keep at it for a year or more, until you get back to normal.Do not use drugs to reduce your weight Some drugs used to reduce weight are dangerous, and in some cases prove fatal.The general tendency is for a person to be thin and young and to grow stout with age. Furthermore, it is sometimes very difficult for a young lightweight to increase his or her weight through diet, etc. But thin young people need fear only tuberculosis; the dangers from consumption are not great provided the precautions regarding the tuberculosis are observed.
With very few exceptions, any person who is too heavy can reduce if he will make an effort to do so. The effort is worth while. At the age of 50, for instance, every pound weight in excess of the standard figures given in the table (standard weight and height) increases a man's likelihood of dying during the ensuing year, by about 1% . in other words, if a man 50 yrs. old weighs 50 lbs. in excess of the standard figures, the likelihood of his dying is constantly 50% greater than that of a man 50 yrs.old who is of normal weight.
The Secret of Good Health
The secret of good health is moderation, in all things--in eating, work, menthal effort, ambition, play, and exercise. The life of moderation is the simple life and, therefore, the healthy, long, and happy one.Those who prefer speed and profess a contempt for the consequences, always change their views when, too late, nature demands payment.
General Rule
THE YOUNG PEOPLE'S DISEASE
From the standpoint of health and chief enemy of young people is tuberculosis; of the middle age, personal neglect. while disease in youth slowly is being conquered, the death rates in the ages beyond 40 show very little if any decrease.
THE MIDDLE AGE DISEASES
Chronic hearth disease, high blood pressure, kidney disease) are painless, and their onset usually gradual and insidious. If they are discovered early, much can be accomplished in the way of their prevention or arrest before serious damage is done. If one relies upon some signal from within to be warned of the impending danger, however, there is a risk if this conditions developing to the extent of causing irreparable damage before their presence is known.
IMPORTANT
Therefore, that all persons, particularly those past 35, have a urinalysis made at least once a year, or, far better, a thorough physical examination. Good heredity and robust constitution are no guarantee of long life. The same rule of health must be followed by all, whether robust of frail, to insure health and long life. the desire not to know if anything is wrong and cowardly and stupid.
From the standpoint of health and chief enemy of young people is tuberculosis; of the middle age, personal neglect. while disease in youth slowly is being conquered, the death rates in the ages beyond 40 show very little if any decrease.
THE MIDDLE AGE DISEASES
Chronic hearth disease, high blood pressure, kidney disease) are painless, and their onset usually gradual and insidious. If they are discovered early, much can be accomplished in the way of their prevention or arrest before serious damage is done. If one relies upon some signal from within to be warned of the impending danger, however, there is a risk if this conditions developing to the extent of causing irreparable damage before their presence is known.
IMPORTANT
Therefore, that all persons, particularly those past 35, have a urinalysis made at least once a year, or, far better, a thorough physical examination. Good heredity and robust constitution are no guarantee of long life. The same rule of health must be followed by all, whether robust of frail, to insure health and long life. the desire not to know if anything is wrong and cowardly and stupid.
Wednesday, April 1, 2009
Body function normally
Health is the state in which the body functions normally. This condition finds the body free from disease, whith all organs and component parts of its structure performing their functions properly and in correct balance.
Health is a normal and relatively constant state in wild animals, this condition prevailing from their heeding of instinctive guidance, and from the free operation of nature's law of survival of the fittest which inexorably eliminate the weak.
Man's instintive apparatus has become dulled by the exercise of his reasoning powers and by habits of civilization which lead him to rely upon others for guidance. Health to him represnts a relative condition, in which he seldom enjoys a state of perfection. With the development of medicine and surgery the weak are preserved, resulting in inherited defects or weakness.
Hence a constantly increasing needs for:
(1) Development of scientific treatment of disorders
(2) Understnding by manhimself of the warnings and subsequent treatment of his ills.
The explanation and suggestion offered here are not intended as a substitute for the physician. On the contrary, the purpose is to offer aid and better understanding to the patients with a view to making the physician's task easier in the matter of simple ailments, thus conserving his time and efforts for the more serious cases that must be brought to his attention. fortunately for ailing mankind, doctors as a class subscribe wholeheartedly to the principle of preventive medicine, to which there is no better ally than the understanding of one's physical organization.
In the name of preventive medicine, then, the following recognized facts are presented. It is an impressive fact that the most ailments in person can be, in pert, prevented by properly regulating diet, by avoiding overindulgence in food and alcoholic beverages, by controlling the weight within normal lmits, by taking mild physical exercise and leading a normal mental existence, free from excessive nervous strain or emotional disturbances.
Our modern mode of living has much to do with involving us in what is known in medicine as a visious cycle. at the age of thirty or so, a young person becomes deeply engrossed in his career. Exersice is soon curtailed, but since the nervous system craves some form of amusement and diversion, the pleasur of the table and the soothing action of tobacco or the stimulating influence of alcoholic beverages are substituted.
In consequence, the weight increases, the appetite enlarges, and there is further disinclination to physical exercise, a deeper absorption in the business of and redier yielding to the temptation of food, tobacco,and wine; and so, endlessly, he whirls tighter with each revolution.
As a result, at the age of fifty or sixty, he is likely to find himself the possessor of a fortune, a large abdomen, a bad heart, and a pair of damage kidneys.
Health is a normal and relatively constant state in wild animals, this condition prevailing from their heeding of instinctive guidance, and from the free operation of nature's law of survival of the fittest which inexorably eliminate the weak.
Man's instintive apparatus has become dulled by the exercise of his reasoning powers and by habits of civilization which lead him to rely upon others for guidance. Health to him represnts a relative condition, in which he seldom enjoys a state of perfection. With the development of medicine and surgery the weak are preserved, resulting in inherited defects or weakness.
Hence a constantly increasing needs for:
(1) Development of scientific treatment of disorders
(2) Understnding by manhimself of the warnings and subsequent treatment of his ills.
The explanation and suggestion offered here are not intended as a substitute for the physician. On the contrary, the purpose is to offer aid and better understanding to the patients with a view to making the physician's task easier in the matter of simple ailments, thus conserving his time and efforts for the more serious cases that must be brought to his attention. fortunately for ailing mankind, doctors as a class subscribe wholeheartedly to the principle of preventive medicine, to which there is no better ally than the understanding of one's physical organization.
In the name of preventive medicine, then, the following recognized facts are presented. It is an impressive fact that the most ailments in person can be, in pert, prevented by properly regulating diet, by avoiding overindulgence in food and alcoholic beverages, by controlling the weight within normal lmits, by taking mild physical exercise and leading a normal mental existence, free from excessive nervous strain or emotional disturbances.
Our modern mode of living has much to do with involving us in what is known in medicine as a visious cycle. at the age of thirty or so, a young person becomes deeply engrossed in his career. Exersice is soon curtailed, but since the nervous system craves some form of amusement and diversion, the pleasur of the table and the soothing action of tobacco or the stimulating influence of alcoholic beverages are substituted.
In consequence, the weight increases, the appetite enlarges, and there is further disinclination to physical exercise, a deeper absorption in the business of and redier yielding to the temptation of food, tobacco,and wine; and so, endlessly, he whirls tighter with each revolution.
As a result, at the age of fifty or sixty, he is likely to find himself the possessor of a fortune, a large abdomen, a bad heart, and a pair of damage kidneys.
Maintaining human health
MedicinePractice of maintaining and restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of patients whose death it is the discipline's ultimate concern to avert.It has traditionally been regarded as both an art and a science. The term is derived from the Latin ars medicina meaning the art of healing.
Whilst health science and biomedicine, clinical medicine, surgery and research are together the very bedrock of contemporary medicine, successful face-to-face relief of actual suffering resulting from disease and injury continues to require the intangible application of human feeling and compassion.
Whilst health science and biomedicine, clinical medicine, surgery and research are together the very bedrock of contemporary medicine, successful face-to-face relief of actual suffering resulting from disease and injury continues to require the intangible application of human feeling and compassion.
Friday, March 20, 2009
What you need to know about HIV/AIDs
AIDS- the result of infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), is an incurable and deadly STD.
AIDS- attacks the body’s immune system, leaving victims unable to fight off even the mildest infections.
While HIV can be transmitted by other means, sexual contact is the most common means of transmission.
Women who are infected with HIV can pass the virus to their infants during pregnancy, childbirth or, less frequently, in breast milk.
Treatment options -for people infected with HIV include protease inhibitors, which can markedly increase survival.
AIDS- attacks the body’s immune system, leaving victims unable to fight off even the mildest infections.
While HIV can be transmitted by other means, sexual contact is the most common means of transmission.
Women who are infected with HIV can pass the virus to their infants during pregnancy, childbirth or, less frequently, in breast milk.
Treatment options -for people infected with HIV include protease inhibitors, which can markedly increase survival.
Becky Kuhn, M.D.,
co-founder of Global Lifeworks
What is Human immunodeficiency Virus?
(HIV/AIDs)
Infectious agent that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a disease that leaves a person vulnerable to life-threatening infections. Scientists have identified two types of this virus.
HIV-1 Is the primary cause of AIDS worldwide.
HIV-2 is found mostly in West Africa.
HIV belongs to the retrovirus family of viruses.
HIV transmission
Occurs when a person is exposed to body fluids infected with the virus;
a.) blood
b.) semen
c.) vaginal secretions
d.) breast milk
The primary modes of HIV transmission are;
(1) sexual relations with an infected person
(2) sharing hypodermic needles or accidental pricking by a needle contaminated with infected blood.
(3) transfer of the virus from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy, childbirth, or through breast-feeding.
When HIV enters the bodyIt infects lymphocytes, white blood cells of the immune system.
The virus commandeers the genetic material of the host cell, instructing the cell to replicate more viruses.
The newly formed viruses break free from the host, destroying the cell in the process.
The new viruses go on to infect and destroy other lymphocytes.
Over a period that may last from a few months to up to 15 years.
HIV may destroy enough lymphocytes that the immune system becomes unable to function properly.
An infected person develops multiple life-threatening illnesses from infections that normally do not cause illnesses in people with a healthy immune system. Some people who have HIV infection
Doctors prefer to use the term AIDS for cases where a person has reached the final, life-threatening stage of HIV infection.
What are the Immune system components?
THE IMMUNE SYSTEMThe ability of the immune system to mount a response to disease is dependent on many complex interactions between the components of the immune system and the antigens on the invading pathogens, or disease-causing agents.
A Macrophages
White blood cells are the mainstay of the immune system.
Some white blood cells, known as macrophages.
play a function in innate immunity by surrounding.
ingesting.
and destroying invading bacteria and other foreign organisms in a process called phagocytosis (literally, “cell eating”).
which is part of the inflammatory reaction.
Macrophages also play an important role in adaptive immunity in that they attach to invading antigens and deliver them to be destroyed by other components of the adaptive immune system.
B Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are specialized white blood cells whose function is to identify and destroy invading antigens.
All lymphocytes begin as “stem cells” in the bone marrow, the soft tissue that fills most bone cavities, but they mature in two different places.
Some lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow and are called B lymphocytes. B lymphocytes, or B cells, make antibodies, which circulate through the blood and other body fluids, binding to antigens and helping to destroy them in humoral immune responses.
Other lymphocytes, called T lymphocytes, or T cells, mature in the thymus, a small glandular organ located behind the breastbone.
Some T lymphocytes, called cytotoxic (cell-poisoning) or killer T lymphocytes, generate cell-mediated immune responses, directly destroying cells that have specific antigens on their surface that are recognized by the killer T cells.
Helper T lymphocytes, a second kind of T lymphocyte, regulate the immune system by controlling the strength and quality of all immune responses.
Most contact between antigens and lymphocytes occurs in the lymphoid organs—the lymph nodes, spleen, and tonsils, as well as specialized areas of the intestine and lungs.
Mature lymphocytes constantly travel through the blood to the lymphoid organs and then back to the blood again.
This recirculation ensures that the body is continuously monitored for invading substances.
C Antigen Receptors
One of the characteristics of adaptive immunity is that it is specific:Each response is tailored to a specific type of invading antigen. Each lymphocyte, as it matures, makes an antigen receptor—that is, a specific structure on its surface that can bind with a matching structure on the antigen like a lock and key.
Although lymphocytes can make billions of different kinds of antigen receptors, each individual lymphocyte makes only one kind.
When an antigen enters the body, it activates only the lymphocytes whose receptors match up with it.
D Antigen-Presenting Cells
When an antigen enters a body cell, certain transport molecules within the cell attach themselves to the antigen and transport it to the surface of the cell, where they “present” the antigen to T lymphocytes.
These transport molecules are made by a group of genes called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and are therefore known as MHC molecules.
Some MHC molecules, called class I MHC molecules, present antigens to killer T cells; other MHC molecules, called class II MHC molecules, present antigens to helper T cells.
A Macrophages
White blood cells are the mainstay of the immune system.
Some white blood cells, known as macrophages.
play a function in innate immunity by surrounding.
ingesting.
and destroying invading bacteria and other foreign organisms in a process called phagocytosis (literally, “cell eating”).
which is part of the inflammatory reaction.
Macrophages also play an important role in adaptive immunity in that they attach to invading antigens and deliver them to be destroyed by other components of the adaptive immune system.
B Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are specialized white blood cells whose function is to identify and destroy invading antigens.
All lymphocytes begin as “stem cells” in the bone marrow, the soft tissue that fills most bone cavities, but they mature in two different places.
Some lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow and are called B lymphocytes. B lymphocytes, or B cells, make antibodies, which circulate through the blood and other body fluids, binding to antigens and helping to destroy them in humoral immune responses.
Other lymphocytes, called T lymphocytes, or T cells, mature in the thymus, a small glandular organ located behind the breastbone.
Some T lymphocytes, called cytotoxic (cell-poisoning) or killer T lymphocytes, generate cell-mediated immune responses, directly destroying cells that have specific antigens on their surface that are recognized by the killer T cells.
Helper T lymphocytes, a second kind of T lymphocyte, regulate the immune system by controlling the strength and quality of all immune responses.
Most contact between antigens and lymphocytes occurs in the lymphoid organs—the lymph nodes, spleen, and tonsils, as well as specialized areas of the intestine and lungs.
Mature lymphocytes constantly travel through the blood to the lymphoid organs and then back to the blood again.
This recirculation ensures that the body is continuously monitored for invading substances.
C Antigen Receptors
One of the characteristics of adaptive immunity is that it is specific:Each response is tailored to a specific type of invading antigen. Each lymphocyte, as it matures, makes an antigen receptor—that is, a specific structure on its surface that can bind with a matching structure on the antigen like a lock and key.
Although lymphocytes can make billions of different kinds of antigen receptors, each individual lymphocyte makes only one kind.
When an antigen enters the body, it activates only the lymphocytes whose receptors match up with it.
D Antigen-Presenting Cells
When an antigen enters a body cell, certain transport molecules within the cell attach themselves to the antigen and transport it to the surface of the cell, where they “present” the antigen to T lymphocytes.
These transport molecules are made by a group of genes called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and are therefore known as MHC molecules.
Some MHC molecules, called class I MHC molecules, present antigens to killer T cells; other MHC molecules, called class II MHC molecules, present antigens to helper T cells.
Retrovirus structure
Retrovirus StructureOn average, retroviruses are about 90 nanometers (nm, about 0.000004 in) across, which means they are so small that they can only be seen with an electron microscope.
Retroviruses consist of a flexible outer membrane called the envelope that surrounds a protein case known as the capsid.The envelope is studded with glycoproteins, chemical receptors that enable the virus to lock on to target cells.The capsid’s hollow interior contains two identical strands of RNA.
These RNA strands make up the virus’s genetic program and store all the instructions needed to replicate the virus once it has infected a host cell.Retroviruses also contain molecules of an enzyme called reverse transcriptase.When a virus infects a cell, reverse transcriptase copies the genetic instructions in the virus’s RNA and uses it to build complementary strands of DNA.
In common with most viruses, retroviruses are highly selective about the hosts that they infect. For instance, HIV only causes disease in human cells, not the cells of other types of animals.Also like most viruses, retroviruses show no signs of life when they are isolated from living cells. Many retroviruses, including HIV, are relatively fragile.
Their ability to infect cells lessens after prolonged exposure to the environment outside a host cell.When retroviruses do infect a host cell, their mode of replication leads to frequent mutations—changes in the genetic makeup of viral offspring.These mutations enable viruses to evolve at a rapid rate.
Genetic mutation is one of many reasons why retroviral infections are difficult to treat—medicines developed to combat one retrovirus with a specific genetic makeup are not effective against mutated offspring of that retrovirus.
Retroviruses consist of a flexible outer membrane called the envelope that surrounds a protein case known as the capsid.The envelope is studded with glycoproteins, chemical receptors that enable the virus to lock on to target cells.The capsid’s hollow interior contains two identical strands of RNA.
These RNA strands make up the virus’s genetic program and store all the instructions needed to replicate the virus once it has infected a host cell.Retroviruses also contain molecules of an enzyme called reverse transcriptase.When a virus infects a cell, reverse transcriptase copies the genetic instructions in the virus’s RNA and uses it to build complementary strands of DNA.
In common with most viruses, retroviruses are highly selective about the hosts that they infect. For instance, HIV only causes disease in human cells, not the cells of other types of animals.Also like most viruses, retroviruses show no signs of life when they are isolated from living cells. Many retroviruses, including HIV, are relatively fragile.
Their ability to infect cells lessens after prolonged exposure to the environment outside a host cell.When retroviruses do infect a host cell, their mode of replication leads to frequent mutations—changes in the genetic makeup of viral offspring.These mutations enable viruses to evolve at a rapid rate.
Genetic mutation is one of many reasons why retroviral infections are difficult to treat—medicines developed to combat one retrovirus with a specific genetic makeup are not effective against mutated offspring of that retrovirus.
Thursday, March 12, 2009
History of Vaccine Safety
Perhaps the greatest success story in public health is the reduction of infectious diseases resulting from the use of vaccines. Routine immunization has eradicated smallpox from the globe and led to the near elimination of wild polio virus.
Vaccines have reduced some preventable infectious diseases to an all-time low, and now few people experience the devastating effects of measles, pertussis, and other illnesses. Prior to approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), vaccines are tested extensively by scientists to ensure they are effective and safe.
Vaccines are the best defense we have against infectious diseases; however, no vaccine is 100% safe or effective. Differences in the way individual immune systems react to a vaccine account for rare occasions when people are not protected following immunization or when they experience side effects.
As the incidence of infectious diseases continues to decline, some people have become less interested in the consequences of preventable illnesses like diphtheria and tetanus. Instead, they have become increasingly concerned about the risks associated with vaccines. After all, vaccines are given to healthy individuals, many of whom are children, and therefore a high standard of safety is required.
Since vaccination is such a common and memorable event, any illness following immunization may be attributed to the vaccine. While some of these reactions may be caused by the vaccine, many of them are unrelated events that occur after vaccination by coincidence. Therefore, the scientific research that attempts to distinguish true vaccine side effects from unrelated, chance occurrences is crucial. This knowledge is necessary to maintain public confidence in immunization programs.
As science continues to advance, we strive to develop safer vaccines and improve delivery to protect ourselves against disease more effectively. This overview focuses on vaccine research, how vaccines are licensed, how safety is monitored, and how risks are communicated to the public
Vaccines have reduced some preventable infectious diseases to an all-time low, and now few people experience the devastating effects of measles, pertussis, and other illnesses. Prior to approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), vaccines are tested extensively by scientists to ensure they are effective and safe.
Vaccines are the best defense we have against infectious diseases; however, no vaccine is 100% safe or effective. Differences in the way individual immune systems react to a vaccine account for rare occasions when people are not protected following immunization or when they experience side effects.
As the incidence of infectious diseases continues to decline, some people have become less interested in the consequences of preventable illnesses like diphtheria and tetanus. Instead, they have become increasingly concerned about the risks associated with vaccines. After all, vaccines are given to healthy individuals, many of whom are children, and therefore a high standard of safety is required.
Since vaccination is such a common and memorable event, any illness following immunization may be attributed to the vaccine. While some of these reactions may be caused by the vaccine, many of them are unrelated events that occur after vaccination by coincidence. Therefore, the scientific research that attempts to distinguish true vaccine side effects from unrelated, chance occurrences is crucial. This knowledge is necessary to maintain public confidence in immunization programs.
As science continues to advance, we strive to develop safer vaccines and improve delivery to protect ourselves against disease more effectively. This overview focuses on vaccine research, how vaccines are licensed, how safety is monitored, and how risks are communicated to the public
Why It’s Important to Monitor Vaccine Safety
John Iskander, MD, MPH, acting director, Immunization Safety Office, and Robert T. Chen, MD, MA, blood safety specialist, Epidemiology Branch, NCHHSTP,
wrote a chapter in the new book
Infectious Disease Surveillance to explain why it is important to monitor vaccine safety.
Rare Reactions.
The most important reason is to detect rare reactions. Although vaccines are tested extensively before they are licensed for use in the United States, not enough people are included in the tests to detect reactions that happen only rarely. If serious reactions are found when the vaccine is in widespread use, the vaccine may be withdrawn.
Higher Risk Groups.
Vaccine safety monitoring also makes sure new vaccines are safe for groups such as the elderly, those with chronic medical conditions, and pregnant women. Vaccine trials may deliberately exclude members of these groups.
Public Confidence in Vaccines.
Monitoring vaccine safety also helps to maintain public confidence needed to keep enough people vaccinated to prevent disease outbreaks.
How We Know If Vaccines Are Safe
Vaccine safety cannot be measured directly. Instead, it is estimated by the number of "adverse events" reported. An adverse event is "... a medical incident that takes place after an immunization ... and is believed to be caused by the immunization." Adverse events include—
True reactions to the vaccine.
Events that would have occurred even if the person had not been vaccinated (unrelated coincidences).
Reactions related to mistakes in vaccine preparation, handling, or administration.
Events that cannot be related directly to the vaccine; their cause is unknown.
A formal scientific study usually is required to distinguish between coincidences and true reactions. It is rarely possible to say for sure whether a vaccine caused a specific adverse event.
wrote a chapter in the new book
Infectious Disease Surveillance to explain why it is important to monitor vaccine safety.
Rare Reactions.
The most important reason is to detect rare reactions. Although vaccines are tested extensively before they are licensed for use in the United States, not enough people are included in the tests to detect reactions that happen only rarely. If serious reactions are found when the vaccine is in widespread use, the vaccine may be withdrawn.
Higher Risk Groups.
Vaccine safety monitoring also makes sure new vaccines are safe for groups such as the elderly, those with chronic medical conditions, and pregnant women. Vaccine trials may deliberately exclude members of these groups.
Public Confidence in Vaccines.
Monitoring vaccine safety also helps to maintain public confidence needed to keep enough people vaccinated to prevent disease outbreaks.
How We Know If Vaccines Are Safe
Vaccine safety cannot be measured directly. Instead, it is estimated by the number of "adverse events" reported. An adverse event is "... a medical incident that takes place after an immunization ... and is believed to be caused by the immunization." Adverse events include—
True reactions to the vaccine.
Events that would have occurred even if the person had not been vaccinated (unrelated coincidences).
Reactions related to mistakes in vaccine preparation, handling, or administration.
Events that cannot be related directly to the vaccine; their cause is unknown.
A formal scientific study usually is required to distinguish between coincidences and true reactions. It is rarely possible to say for sure whether a vaccine caused a specific adverse event.
Vaccine Safety Information for Parents
Vaccines are held to the highest standard of safety. The United States currently has the safest, most effective vaccine supply in history. Years of testing are required by law before a vaccine can be licensed. Once in use, vaccines are continually monitored for safety and efficacy.
Immunizations, like any medication, can cause adverse events.
However, a decision not to immunize a child also involves risk.
It is a decision to put the child and others who come into contact with him or her at risk of contracting a disease that could be dangerous or deadly. Consider measles. One out of 30 children with measles develops pneumonia. For every 1,000 children who get the disease, one or two will die from it.
Thanks to vaccines, we have few cases of measles in the U.S. today. However, the disease is extremely contagious, and each year dozens of cases are imported from abroad into the U.S., threatening the health of people who have not been vaccinated and those for whom the vaccine was not effective.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) continually work to make already safe vaccines even safer. In the rare event that a child is injured by a vaccine, he or she may be compensated through the National Vaccine Injury
Compensation Program (VICP) or call 1-800-338-2382.
Immunizations, like any medication, can cause adverse events.
However, a decision not to immunize a child also involves risk.
It is a decision to put the child and others who come into contact with him or her at risk of contracting a disease that could be dangerous or deadly. Consider measles. One out of 30 children with measles develops pneumonia. For every 1,000 children who get the disease, one or two will die from it.
Thanks to vaccines, we have few cases of measles in the U.S. today. However, the disease is extremely contagious, and each year dozens of cases are imported from abroad into the U.S., threatening the health of people who have not been vaccinated and those for whom the vaccine was not effective.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) continually work to make already safe vaccines even safer. In the rare event that a child is injured by a vaccine, he or she may be compensated through the National Vaccine Injury
Compensation Program (VICP) or call 1-800-338-2382.
Friday, January 16, 2009
How Retrovirus Infect Organism?
A retroviral infection begins when a virus comes into contact with a suitable host cell.In the initial stages of an HIV infection, for example, the hosts are T cells—white blood cells that belong to the human immune system.
Other common retrovirus targets include connective tissue cells, which form muscle, cartilage, or bone. On encountering a host cell, the retrovirus attaches itself to receptors on the surface of the host cell’s membrane.In this two-way process, the retrovirus’s glycoproteins and the host cell’s receptors bind together, locking the virus in place. The outer envelope of the retrovirus then fuses with the host cell membrane, enabling the viral capsid to enter the cell itself.
Once inside the cell, the capsid opens, releasing RNA and reverse transcriptase into the cell’s cytoplasm, a watery fluid that is rich in proteins and other chemicals. Using the cell’s chemical resources, reverse transcriptase builds up a double-stranded DNA molecule that mirrors the information stored in the viral RNA.
Initially, this DNA molecule is circular, but it is later spliced apart and inserted into the DNA of the host cell. From this moment onward, the viral DNA, known as a provirus, behaves like the host cell’s own genes.
The only difference is that the provirus contains instructions for assembling replicated viruses, rather than instructions for building or controlling a living cell.
As viral replication proceeds, the provirus directs the host cell to manufacture all the parts needed for more viruses, including capsids and viral RNA. These viral parts spontaneously self-assemble to form new viruses, and the new viruses migrate toward the exterior of the cell.
The newly formed viruses bud away from the host cell, taking with them small areas of the cell membrane, which the viruses use to form outer envelopes. The host cell may survive this viral breakout, but in many infections it becomes so weakened that it dies.
As viruses replicate and infect more cells, the number of cell deaths lead to tissue destruction and disease.
Other common retrovirus targets include connective tissue cells, which form muscle, cartilage, or bone. On encountering a host cell, the retrovirus attaches itself to receptors on the surface of the host cell’s membrane.In this two-way process, the retrovirus’s glycoproteins and the host cell’s receptors bind together, locking the virus in place. The outer envelope of the retrovirus then fuses with the host cell membrane, enabling the viral capsid to enter the cell itself.
Once inside the cell, the capsid opens, releasing RNA and reverse transcriptase into the cell’s cytoplasm, a watery fluid that is rich in proteins and other chemicals. Using the cell’s chemical resources, reverse transcriptase builds up a double-stranded DNA molecule that mirrors the information stored in the viral RNA.
Initially, this DNA molecule is circular, but it is later spliced apart and inserted into the DNA of the host cell. From this moment onward, the viral DNA, known as a provirus, behaves like the host cell’s own genes.
The only difference is that the provirus contains instructions for assembling replicated viruses, rather than instructions for building or controlling a living cell.
As viral replication proceeds, the provirus directs the host cell to manufacture all the parts needed for more viruses, including capsids and viral RNA. These viral parts spontaneously self-assemble to form new viruses, and the new viruses migrate toward the exterior of the cell.
The newly formed viruses bud away from the host cell, taking with them small areas of the cell membrane, which the viruses use to form outer envelopes. The host cell may survive this viral breakout, but in many infections it becomes so weakened that it dies.
As viruses replicate and infect more cells, the number of cell deaths lead to tissue destruction and disease.
Retroviral disease
Retroviruses are not known to cause disease in plants, but they can produce a wide range of diseases in animals.In some retroviral infections, symptoms appear soon after an infection.
In other infections the retrovirus genes become incorporated into a host cell's DNA and enter a latent (dormant) state until some unknown agent or event triggers them to churn out new viruses.
In these cases, symptoms may not become apparent for months or even years after the initial infection.
Once installed, a retrovirus can damage host cells directly, or it can trigger cancer by disabling the systems that normally prevent cells from multiplying out of control.
Scientists first linked retroviruses to cancer in 1911, when American researcher Francis Peyton Rous investigated a form of tumor that occurs in chickens.
Rous passed a solution containing cells from these chicken tumors through a fine filter.The filter was intended to capture infectious agents, such as bacteria and protozoans.
Rous discovered that the filtered fluid from these tumors was still infectious, indicating the presence of an unknown infectious agent.He correctly concluded that a virus, which is so small that it passes through filters, was responsible for the chicken tumor.
Called Rous sarcoma virus, it was discovered many years later to be a member of the retrovirus family. Retroviruses also cause cancer in a range of mammals:
Cats and rodents are two well-studied examples.
In 1965, while studying the Rous sarcoma virus, American virologist Howard Temin made the surprising discovery that the virus’s RNA inserted its own genes into the DNA of the host cell.
In 1970 Temin and American molecular biologist David Baltimore, working independently, identified an RNA viral enzyme that copies genetic information to the host cell's DNA.
The enzyme later became known as reverse transcriptase.The discovery of reverse transcriptase shed new light on how a retrovirus changes a normal cell to a cancer cell.
The first human retrovirus was discovered in 1980. Known as human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV), it exists in two forms, HTLV-I and HTLV-II, and appears to cause certain types of lymphoma (cancer of the lymphatic system) and leukemia.
In 1983 a third and quite different human retrovirus was discovered in patients suffering from a new immune deficiency disease (an illness that damages the immune system).
Initially labeled HTLV-III, it was renamed HIV in 1986 and has since gained worldwide notoriety as the cause of AIDS.HIV attacks the immune system of its host, undermining the very defenses that keep most viruses in check.
One group of immune system T cells, called CD4 cells, are particularly vulnerable to HIV and become primary targets soon after an infection begins.Initially, the amount of virus in the blood, known as the viral load, quickly climbs as newly replicated viruses are produced and released from host cells.
Following this stage, known as acute retroviral syndrome, the viral load drops, and it looks as though the immune system has brought the infection under control.Despite these promising signs, the virus is never completely eliminated.From its hiding place inside T cells themselves, HIV continues its attack, destroying T cells.
As T cells die, the immune system loses its ability to fight back.
Once the T-cell count drops below a critical level, microorganisms that are normally kept in check by a healthy immune system can reproduce at a rapid rate.
Without effective treatment, these opportunistic infections, rather than HIV itself, often have fatal results.
Retroviruses that cause immune deficiency diseases affect animals other than humans.
This group of retroviruses includes feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), which infects cats, and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), which attacks monkeys and apes.
SIV is of particular interest in medicine as the origin of HIV. Scientists believe that SIV from a chimpanzee likely infected humans and underwent mutations to form HIV.
In other infections the retrovirus genes become incorporated into a host cell's DNA and enter a latent (dormant) state until some unknown agent or event triggers them to churn out new viruses.
In these cases, symptoms may not become apparent for months or even years after the initial infection.
Once installed, a retrovirus can damage host cells directly, or it can trigger cancer by disabling the systems that normally prevent cells from multiplying out of control.
Scientists first linked retroviruses to cancer in 1911, when American researcher Francis Peyton Rous investigated a form of tumor that occurs in chickens.
Rous passed a solution containing cells from these chicken tumors through a fine filter.The filter was intended to capture infectious agents, such as bacteria and protozoans.
Rous discovered that the filtered fluid from these tumors was still infectious, indicating the presence of an unknown infectious agent.He correctly concluded that a virus, which is so small that it passes through filters, was responsible for the chicken tumor.
Called Rous sarcoma virus, it was discovered many years later to be a member of the retrovirus family. Retroviruses also cause cancer in a range of mammals:
Cats and rodents are two well-studied examples.
In 1965, while studying the Rous sarcoma virus, American virologist Howard Temin made the surprising discovery that the virus’s RNA inserted its own genes into the DNA of the host cell.
In 1970 Temin and American molecular biologist David Baltimore, working independently, identified an RNA viral enzyme that copies genetic information to the host cell's DNA.
The enzyme later became known as reverse transcriptase.The discovery of reverse transcriptase shed new light on how a retrovirus changes a normal cell to a cancer cell.
The first human retrovirus was discovered in 1980. Known as human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV), it exists in two forms, HTLV-I and HTLV-II, and appears to cause certain types of lymphoma (cancer of the lymphatic system) and leukemia.
In 1983 a third and quite different human retrovirus was discovered in patients suffering from a new immune deficiency disease (an illness that damages the immune system).
Initially labeled HTLV-III, it was renamed HIV in 1986 and has since gained worldwide notoriety as the cause of AIDS.HIV attacks the immune system of its host, undermining the very defenses that keep most viruses in check.
One group of immune system T cells, called CD4 cells, are particularly vulnerable to HIV and become primary targets soon after an infection begins.Initially, the amount of virus in the blood, known as the viral load, quickly climbs as newly replicated viruses are produced and released from host cells.
Following this stage, known as acute retroviral syndrome, the viral load drops, and it looks as though the immune system has brought the infection under control.Despite these promising signs, the virus is never completely eliminated.From its hiding place inside T cells themselves, HIV continues its attack, destroying T cells.
As T cells die, the immune system loses its ability to fight back.
Once the T-cell count drops below a critical level, microorganisms that are normally kept in check by a healthy immune system can reproduce at a rapid rate.
Without effective treatment, these opportunistic infections, rather than HIV itself, often have fatal results.
Retroviruses that cause immune deficiency diseases affect animals other than humans.
This group of retroviruses includes feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), which infects cats, and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), which attacks monkeys and apes.
SIV is of particular interest in medicine as the origin of HIV. Scientists believe that SIV from a chimpanzee likely infected humans and underwent mutations to form HIV.
Scientists uses Retrovirus
Given its huge impact on human health worldwide, HIV is at the forefront of retroviral research. In the last decade, the development of effective new drug therapies has helped thousands of people survive an HIV infection, although often at the expense of unpleasant side effects.
Preventing the spread of the virus has proved a more difficult challenge.Despite intensive research, a vaccine against HIV still does not exist, largely because the virus mutates at such a rapid rate.
As a group, however, retroviruses may one day play a more positive role in human health. In gene therapy scientists use genetically altered viruses to insert beneficial genes into human cells.Once in place, these genes can potentially correct inherited disorders, such as cystic fibrosis. Retroviruses make suitable delivery vehicles because they have the chemical apparatus that is needed to splice genes into particular target cells.
Once the genes are inserted, they are copied and handed on each time the recipient cells divide.Gene therapy is still in its experimental stages, and where retroviruses are concerned, there are a number of practical problems to overcome.One of these involves the space where the genetic information of a retrovirus is stored.This space is small, which means that there is a limited amount of storage space for the beneficial genes that are to be transferred.
Another problem is safety, a prime consideration with agents associated with disease. Retroviruses used in gene therapy are genetically engineered to prevent them from replicating. However, there is still a slight possibility that these genetically engineered retroviruses may insert genes in an inappropriate region of DNA, triggering cancer or other problems.
In early 2003, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) halted 27 gene therapy clinical trials that used a retrovirus to ferry genes into blood-producing cells.Two children involved in the trials became ill with a condition resembling leukemia, and the FDA decided it was unsafe to continue using this procedure.
Once safety problems can be overcome, however, the use of retroviruses in gene therapy may become a matter of routine.
Preventing the spread of the virus has proved a more difficult challenge.Despite intensive research, a vaccine against HIV still does not exist, largely because the virus mutates at such a rapid rate.
As a group, however, retroviruses may one day play a more positive role in human health. In gene therapy scientists use genetically altered viruses to insert beneficial genes into human cells.Once in place, these genes can potentially correct inherited disorders, such as cystic fibrosis. Retroviruses make suitable delivery vehicles because they have the chemical apparatus that is needed to splice genes into particular target cells.
Once the genes are inserted, they are copied and handed on each time the recipient cells divide.Gene therapy is still in its experimental stages, and where retroviruses are concerned, there are a number of practical problems to overcome.One of these involves the space where the genetic information of a retrovirus is stored.This space is small, which means that there is a limited amount of storage space for the beneficial genes that are to be transferred.
Another problem is safety, a prime consideration with agents associated with disease. Retroviruses used in gene therapy are genetically engineered to prevent them from replicating. However, there is still a slight possibility that these genetically engineered retroviruses may insert genes in an inappropriate region of DNA, triggering cancer or other problems.
In early 2003, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) halted 27 gene therapy clinical trials that used a retrovirus to ferry genes into blood-producing cells.Two children involved in the trials became ill with a condition resembling leukemia, and the FDA decided it was unsafe to continue using this procedure.
Once safety problems can be overcome, however, the use of retroviruses in gene therapy may become a matter of routine.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Infectious agent that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a disease that leaves a person vulnerable to life-threatening infections. Scientists have identified two types of this virus.
HIV-1 is the primary cause of AIDS worldwide.HIV-2 is found mostly in West Africa.HIV belongs to the retrovirus family of viruses, whose members share a unique method of replicating themselves when they infect living cells.
Retroviruses store their genetic information in molecules of ribonucleic acid (RNA). However, unlike other RNA viruses, retroviruses use RNA as a template (master pattern) for forming deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material that puts viral replication instructions into effect.
This process, called reverse transcription, is the exact opposite of the normal flow of genetic information in living things, in which DNA serves as the template for RNA formation.HIV consists of a flexible outer membrane, called the envelope, that surrounds a protein case known as the capsid.
The envelope is studded with glycoproteins, chemical receptors that enable the virus to lock onto target cells.
Inside the capsid reside two identical strands of RNA.
These RNA strands make up the virus’s genetic program and store all the instructions needed to replicate HIV once it has infected a host cell.
HIV also contains molecules of an enzyme called reverse transcriptase.
When HIV infects a cell, reverse transcriptase copies the genetic instructions in the virus’s RNA and uses the instructions to build complementary strands of DNA.
HIV transmission occurs when a person is exposed to body fluids infected with the virus, such as blood, semen, vaginal secretions, and breast milk.
The primary modes of HIV transmission are
HIV-1 is the primary cause of AIDS worldwide.HIV-2 is found mostly in West Africa.HIV belongs to the retrovirus family of viruses, whose members share a unique method of replicating themselves when they infect living cells.
Retroviruses store their genetic information in molecules of ribonucleic acid (RNA). However, unlike other RNA viruses, retroviruses use RNA as a template (master pattern) for forming deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material that puts viral replication instructions into effect.
This process, called reverse transcription, is the exact opposite of the normal flow of genetic information in living things, in which DNA serves as the template for RNA formation.HIV consists of a flexible outer membrane, called the envelope, that surrounds a protein case known as the capsid.
The envelope is studded with glycoproteins, chemical receptors that enable the virus to lock onto target cells.
Inside the capsid reside two identical strands of RNA.
These RNA strands make up the virus’s genetic program and store all the instructions needed to replicate HIV once it has infected a host cell.
HIV also contains molecules of an enzyme called reverse transcriptase.
When HIV infects a cell, reverse transcriptase copies the genetic instructions in the virus’s RNA and uses the instructions to build complementary strands of DNA.
HIV transmission occurs when a person is exposed to body fluids infected with the virus, such as blood, semen, vaginal secretions, and breast milk.
The primary modes of HIV transmission are
- (1) sexual relations with an infected person
- (2) sharing hypodermic needles or accidental pricking by a needle contaminated with infected blood
- (3) transfer of the virus from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy, childbirth, or through breast-feeding.
When HIV enters the body, it infects lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell in the immune system.
HIV uses its glycoproteins to attach itself to receptors on the surface of a lymphocyte.
The outer envelope of HIV then fuses with the lymphocyte, enabling the HIV capsid to enter the lymphocyte itself.
HIV commandeers the genetic material of the lymphocyte, instructing the cell to replicate more viruses.
The newly formed viruses break free from the host, destroying the cell in the process. The new viruses go on to infect and destroy other lymphocytes.Over a period that may last from a few months to up to 15 years, HIV may destroy enough lymphocytes that the immune system becomes unable to function properly.
An infected person develops multiple life-threatening illnesses from infections that normally do not cause illnesses in people with a healthy immune system.
Some people who have HIV infection may not develop any of the clinical illnesses that define the full-blown disease of AIDS for ten years or more.
Doctors prefer to use the term AIDS for cases where a person has reached the final, life-threatening stage of HIV infection.
No treatment is available that cures AIDS, but a number of drugs have been developed that suppress HIV replication, thereby preventing the destruction of the immune system.
Known as antiretroviral therapy, these drugs target different stages in the life cycle of HIV. There are four main classes of drugs used against HIV: nucleoside analogues, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors, and fusion inhibitors.
Nucleoside analogues and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors use different mechanisms to block the action of the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
Protease inhibitors interfere with protease, an enzyme vital to the formation of new HIV. When these drugs block protease, defective HIV forms that is unable to infect new cells.
In 2003 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the use of enfuvirtide, sold under the brand name Fuzeon.
This drug belongs to a new class of drugs called fusion inhibitors, which prevent the binding or fusion of HIV to lymphocytes.
The Immune system protects itself from infections
Scientists learned more about how the body's immune system protects itself from infections, resulting in new tests for diagnosing infectious diseases and new vaccines to prevent them.
The Wasserman blood test for syphilis was developed in 1906 and the tuberculin skin test for tuberculosis appeared in 1908.
By the 1930s new techniques for growing viruses in the laboratory led to vaccines against viral diseases.
These included a yellow fever vaccine in the late 1930s and the first effective influenza vaccine in the 1940s. The American physician Jonas E. Salk developed a polio vaccine in 1954.
Later virologist Albert B. Sabin developed a safer oral polio vaccine, which was in wide use by the 1960s.
Later came vaccines for other childhood diseases, including measles, German measles, mumps, and chicken pox.
The Wasserman blood test for syphilis was developed in 1906 and the tuberculin skin test for tuberculosis appeared in 1908.
By the 1930s new techniques for growing viruses in the laboratory led to vaccines against viral diseases.
These included a yellow fever vaccine in the late 1930s and the first effective influenza vaccine in the 1940s. The American physician Jonas E. Salk developed a polio vaccine in 1954.
Later virologist Albert B. Sabin developed a safer oral polio vaccine, which was in wide use by the 1960s.
Later came vaccines for other childhood diseases, including measles, German measles, mumps, and chicken pox.
Simple tips can help
try this!! "COWS MILk+
EGGYOLK = MEDICINE "- 12 GLASS OF WATER /DAY----in 12 days 12
- 10 GLASS OF WATER/DAY------in 10 days 10
- 8 GLASS OF WATER/day -----regular day 8
To help our Immune System.
Immune System, group of cells, molecules, and organs that act together to defend the body against foreign invaders that may cause disease;
- bacteria
- viruses
- fungi.
Breath odor as a clue to health problem
Diabetes
Collecting a breath sample and analyzing it, useful in medicine to diagnose certain conditions, and also used by the police to measure alcohol consumption.Since the time of Hippocrates in ancient Greece doctors have been aware that the odor of a patient's breath can aid diagnosis.
For example, the breath of a person with kidney failure smells similar to urine, and an undiagnosed diabetic's breath has a fruity odor.In 1784 French scientists Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre Simon Laplace analyzed the breath of a guinea pig to reveal that it consumed oxygen and exhaled carbon dioxide.
Many breath tests require the patient to consume a substance beforehand, with the test checking for the broken down products of this substance.Abnormal quantities of the broken down product indicate disease.
For example, before a breath test to diagnose malabsorption syndrome (a condition characterized by severe, chronic diarrhea caused by the small intestine failing to absorb food efficiently) the patient must eat a dose of xylose, a sugar normally completely absorbed in the intestine.Large amounts of hydrogen in the breath within the next few hours reveal the disease is present. Research into using an electronic "nose" to analyze patients' breath began in Britain in 1995.
Blood alcohol level
Forensic science uses sophisticated laboratory techniques to detect the presence of substances in the victim, in the suspected criminal, or at the crime scene.
For example, in determining whether alcohol was involved in a crime, the amount of alcohol in the blood can be measured in two ways.
One is to measure the amount of alcohol exhaled in the breath of an individual, which reveals the concentration of alcohol in the person's blood.Recent advances in technology have produced alcohol breath-testing instruments so accurate that their results are evidential (capable of providing evidence in court).
Blood-alcohol level can also be determined by actual blood tests, usually through gas chromatography.In this method, the blood sample is vaporized by high temperature, and the gas is then sent through a column that separates the various chemical compounds present in the blood.
Gas chromatography permits the detection not only of alcohol but also of other drugs, such as barbiturates, cocaine, amphetamines, and heroin.
Ayurvedic Medicine
Ayurveda does not seek to treat the symptoms of disease; instead, it seeks to restore the underlying balance of the doshas.The Ayurvedic practitioner diagnoses a patient’s constitutional type and imbalances through such techniques as questioning;
a. specialized pulse measurementsb. observation of the tonguec. eyesd. nailse. face and skinf. voice qualityg. urineh. breath odor.The practitioner then makes specific recommendations to bring the doshas back into balance.
Collecting a breath sample and analyzing it, useful in medicine to diagnose certain conditions, and also used by the police to measure alcohol consumption.Since the time of Hippocrates in ancient Greece doctors have been aware that the odor of a patient's breath can aid diagnosis.
For example, the breath of a person with kidney failure smells similar to urine, and an undiagnosed diabetic's breath has a fruity odor.In 1784 French scientists Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre Simon Laplace analyzed the breath of a guinea pig to reveal that it consumed oxygen and exhaled carbon dioxide.
Many breath tests require the patient to consume a substance beforehand, with the test checking for the broken down products of this substance.Abnormal quantities of the broken down product indicate disease.
For example, before a breath test to diagnose malabsorption syndrome (a condition characterized by severe, chronic diarrhea caused by the small intestine failing to absorb food efficiently) the patient must eat a dose of xylose, a sugar normally completely absorbed in the intestine.Large amounts of hydrogen in the breath within the next few hours reveal the disease is present. Research into using an electronic "nose" to analyze patients' breath began in Britain in 1995.
Blood alcohol level
Forensic science uses sophisticated laboratory techniques to detect the presence of substances in the victim, in the suspected criminal, or at the crime scene.
For example, in determining whether alcohol was involved in a crime, the amount of alcohol in the blood can be measured in two ways.
One is to measure the amount of alcohol exhaled in the breath of an individual, which reveals the concentration of alcohol in the person's blood.Recent advances in technology have produced alcohol breath-testing instruments so accurate that their results are evidential (capable of providing evidence in court).
Blood-alcohol level can also be determined by actual blood tests, usually through gas chromatography.In this method, the blood sample is vaporized by high temperature, and the gas is then sent through a column that separates the various chemical compounds present in the blood.
Gas chromatography permits the detection not only of alcohol but also of other drugs, such as barbiturates, cocaine, amphetamines, and heroin.
Ayurvedic Medicine
Ayurveda does not seek to treat the symptoms of disease; instead, it seeks to restore the underlying balance of the doshas.The Ayurvedic practitioner diagnoses a patient’s constitutional type and imbalances through such techniques as questioning;
a. specialized pulse measurementsb. observation of the tonguec. eyesd. nailse. face and skinf. voice qualityg. urineh. breath odor.The practitioner then makes specific recommendations to bring the doshas back into balance.
What causes Bad breath?
Halitosis, foul-smelling breath.
Could it be your breath?
Maybe you shouldn't have put extra onions on your hamburger at lunch.
The good news is that bad breath happens to everyone once in a while. Let's find out how to detect it, prevent it, and even treat it.
What's That Smell?
Bad breath is the common name for the medical condition known as halitosis .Many different things can cause halitosis — from not brushing your teeth to certain medical conditions.
Sometimes, a person's bad breath can blow you away — and he or she may not realize there's a problem.There are tactful (nice) ways of letting someone know about bad breath.You could offer mints or sugarless gum without having to say anything.
If you need to tell a friend he or she has bad breath, you could say that you understand foods can cause bad breath because you've had it before yourself.
By letting someone know that bad breath isn't something unusual, you'll make the person feel more comfortable and less embarrassed about accepting your piece of chewing gum.
If you suspect your own breath is foul, ask someone who will give you an honest answer without making fun of you.
(Just don't ask your brother or sister — they just might tell you your breath stinks even when it doesn't!)
Although everyone gets bad breath sometimes, if you have bad breath a lot, you may need to visit your dentist or doctor.
What Causes Bad Breath?
Here are three common causes of bad breath:a. foods and drinksb. garlicc. onionsd. cheesee. orange juicef. soda
Poor dental hygiene
Meaning you don't brush and floss as you shouldsmoking and other tobacco use
Poor oral hygiene
Leads to bad breath because when you leave food particles in your mouth, these pieces of food can rot and start to smell.
The food particles may begin to collect bacteria, which can be smelly, too.Plus, by not brushing your teeth regularly, plaque (a sticky, colorless film) builds up on your teeth.
Plaque
Is a great place for bacteria to live and yet another reason why breath can turn foul.Preventing Smelly Breath
Don't smoke or use tobacco products
And take care of your mouth by brushing your teeth at least twice a day and flossing once a day.Brush your tongue, too, because bacteria can grow there. Flossing once a day helps get rid of particles wedged between your teeth. Also, visit your dentist twice a year for regular checkups and cleanings.Not only will you get a thorough cleaning, the dentist will look around your mouth for any potential problems, including those that can affect breath.
For example,
Gum disease
Also known as periodontal disease, can cause bad breath and damage your teeth.
If you're concerned about bad breath, tell your doctor or dentist.But don't be surprised if he or she leans in and take a big whiff! Smell is one way doctors and dentists can help figure out what's causing the problem.
The way a person's breath smells can be a clue to what's wrong.
For instance, if someone has uncontrolled diabetes, his or her breath might smell like acetone
(the same stuff that's in nail polish remover).
If you have bad breath all the time and the reason can't be determined by your dentist, he or she may refer you to a doctor to make sure there is no other medical condition that could be causing it.
Sometimes sinus problems
And rarely liver or kidney problems, can cause bad breath.Usually, there's a less complicated reason for a kid's bad breath — like what you had for lunch.So keep up with your brushing and flossing and you should be breathing easy — and odor free!
Diseases and Disorders of the Mouth
a. Actinomycosis
Infectious disease of horses, cattle, swine, and humans, also called lumpy jaw or big jaw.
It is caused by several species of bacteria of the genus Actinomyces .In humans it is caused mainly by Actinomyces israelii, a component of the normal flora of the mouth and tonsillar crypts.
The bacteria invade decayed teethdiseased tonsilssoft mouth tissues
The disease is characterized chiefly by abscessed, swollen, and lumpy tissues of the jaw.The lungs and intestinal tract may also become infected.It is treated by draining abscessed tissues and by using large doses of penicillin or tetracycline.
b. Canker Sore
Small sore on the inside of the lips or cheeks, or on any other part of the mouth that is coated with mucus.
Usually invisible when the mouth is closed, canker sores are small blisters that rupture and become painful, whitish-yellow ulcers.
Although the sores may develop singly, they usually appear in groups of fewer than five, and they tend to heal in about ten days.
Outbreaks involving more than ten small sores at a time are not unknown, however.
Fever and fatigue may accompany these larger outbreaks, which can take up to three months to heal and result in scarring.
The precise cause of canker sores is unknown, but they often result from oral irritation, injury, or viral infection, and are also associated with acute emotional stress and with various kinds of allergies.
In addition, the sores have been linked to dietary deficiencies of iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid.
Although not caused by bacterial infection, canker sores provide breeding grounds for bacteria that make the sores take longer to heal and cause more pain.
Most people will suffer from canker sores at some time in their lives; men have a lower rate of incidence than women.
Most canker sores heal on their own, and no special treatment will speed the process.
Mild pain-killing and anti-inflammatory ointments and mouthwashes provide some relief for people with recurring canker sores.
c. Cold Sore
Also called fever blister, a small, painful blister on the face, especially around the lips and nose and inside the mouth.
A cold sore first appears as a small red pimple that gradually develops into a small, painful blister full of clear fluid.
When the blister ruptures, it appears yellowish, dry, and crusted.
Cold sores are caused by a herpes simplex virus.
They spread from one individual to another by direct contact between skin surfaces, and they usually erupt in clusters.
Most people infected by the herpes simplex virus contract it before adolescence, but only a small percent of exposed children actually develop symptoms at that time.
When the herpes simplex virus is inactive, it lies dormant in neurons, or nerve cells.
Later, illnesses or emotional upsets can reactivate the virus and trigger the development of cold sores, and affected individuals often suffer from recurring attacks.
Cold sores tend to accompany common colds and infectious diseases, such as pneumonia and diphtheria, that are characterized by fever.
The cold sore infection itself can raise body temperature above normal and account for swelling in the lymph nodes of the neck.
Cold sores usually last from ten days to two weeks, and no preventive measures are known, although complications caused by the bacterial infections that often accompany cold sores can be controlled by antibiotic ointments.
The antiviral ointments known as vidarabine and acyclovir may also be prescribed to relieve the pain of cold sores.
Infectious disease of horses, cattle, swine, and humans, also called lumpy jaw or big jaw.
It is caused by several species of bacteria of the genus Actinomyces .In humans it is caused mainly by Actinomyces israelii, a component of the normal flora of the mouth and tonsillar crypts.
The bacteria invade decayed teethdiseased tonsilssoft mouth tissues
The disease is characterized chiefly by abscessed, swollen, and lumpy tissues of the jaw.The lungs and intestinal tract may also become infected.It is treated by draining abscessed tissues and by using large doses of penicillin or tetracycline.
b. Canker Sore
Small sore on the inside of the lips or cheeks, or on any other part of the mouth that is coated with mucus.
Usually invisible when the mouth is closed, canker sores are small blisters that rupture and become painful, whitish-yellow ulcers.
Although the sores may develop singly, they usually appear in groups of fewer than five, and they tend to heal in about ten days.
Outbreaks involving more than ten small sores at a time are not unknown, however.
Fever and fatigue may accompany these larger outbreaks, which can take up to three months to heal and result in scarring.
The precise cause of canker sores is unknown, but they often result from oral irritation, injury, or viral infection, and are also associated with acute emotional stress and with various kinds of allergies.
In addition, the sores have been linked to dietary deficiencies of iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid.
Although not caused by bacterial infection, canker sores provide breeding grounds for bacteria that make the sores take longer to heal and cause more pain.
Most people will suffer from canker sores at some time in their lives; men have a lower rate of incidence than women.
Most canker sores heal on their own, and no special treatment will speed the process.
Mild pain-killing and anti-inflammatory ointments and mouthwashes provide some relief for people with recurring canker sores.
c. Cold Sore
Also called fever blister, a small, painful blister on the face, especially around the lips and nose and inside the mouth.
A cold sore first appears as a small red pimple that gradually develops into a small, painful blister full of clear fluid.
When the blister ruptures, it appears yellowish, dry, and crusted.
Cold sores are caused by a herpes simplex virus.
They spread from one individual to another by direct contact between skin surfaces, and they usually erupt in clusters.
Most people infected by the herpes simplex virus contract it before adolescence, but only a small percent of exposed children actually develop symptoms at that time.
When the herpes simplex virus is inactive, it lies dormant in neurons, or nerve cells.
Later, illnesses or emotional upsets can reactivate the virus and trigger the development of cold sores, and affected individuals often suffer from recurring attacks.
Cold sores tend to accompany common colds and infectious diseases, such as pneumonia and diphtheria, that are characterized by fever.
The cold sore infection itself can raise body temperature above normal and account for swelling in the lymph nodes of the neck.
Cold sores usually last from ten days to two weeks, and no preventive measures are known, although complications caused by the bacterial infections that often accompany cold sores can be controlled by antibiotic ointments.
The antiviral ointments known as vidarabine and acyclovir may also be prescribed to relieve the pain of cold sores.
Life Practical Suggestions
Eight (8) steps towards a more satisfying life-satisfying practical suggestion.
by: Psychologist Sonja Lyubomirsky University of California
4. Thank a mentor=Someone to whom you owe your gratitude for their guidance during a challenging time.
by: Psychologist Sonja Lyubomirsky University of California
1. Count your blessing;=Once a week write down three to five things that you are thankful for.
2. Practice acts of kindness;=Being kind to others makes you feel generous and capable, and gives you a sense of connection with others.
3. Savours life's joys;=The warmth of the sun or the beauty of nature. Take menthal photographs of pleasurably experiences to reflect on in less happy times.4. Thank a mentor=Someone to whom you owe your gratitude for their guidance during a challenging time.
5. Lear to forgive=Let go of anger and resentment. Write a letter of forgiveness to someone that has wronged you.
6. Invest time and energy into friends and family;=Personal relationships are the biggest factor in your own satifaction with your life.7. Take care of your body;=Get plenty of sleep, exercise, smiles and laughter.
8. Develop strategies for coping with stress and hardships;=The belief that hardtimes will pass and things will get better.Cold Symptoms
Acute viral nasopharyngitis, or acute coryza, usually known as the common cold, is a highly contagious, viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, primarily caused by picornaviruses (including rhinoviruses) or coronaviruses.Common symptoms are sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing and coughing; sometimes accompanied by 'pink eye', muscle aches, fatigue, malaise, headaches, muscle weakness, and loss of appetite. Fever and extreme exhaustion are more usual in influenza. The symptoms of a cold usually resolve after about one week, but can last up to two. Symptoms may be more severe in infants and young children. Although the disease is generally mild and self-limiting, patients with common colds often seek professional medical help, use over-the-counter drugs, and may miss school or work days. The annual cumulative societal cost of the common cold in developed countries is considerable in terms of money spent on remedies, and hours of lost productivity.
The primary method to prevent infection is hand-washing to minimize person-to-person transmission of the virus. There are no antiviral drugs approved to treat or cure the infection. Most available medications are palliative and treat symptoms only. Megadoses of vitamin C, preparations from echinacea, and zinc gluconate have been studied as treatments for the common cold, but none have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration or European Medicines Agency.
source: wikipedia
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